Origins of Therapeutic Occupational Indexes: A Shared Contribution in North America
Occupational indexes used today as therapeutic tools represent an evolution and amalgamation of prior efforts that were used for distinct purposes; that is counselling and rehabilitation. Despite a somewhat different intent, the broad methodologies used in their respective creations were similar because this knowledge was shared between authorities in the United States and Canada.
The categorization of work in North America is nearly as old as western European colonization itself. The Census of New France, 1665-66, the first in North America, gave a table of professions and trades listed alphabetically [1] In the United States, the early focus appears to be more industrial as the earliest censuses tracked numbers of people participating in broad categories of work such as agriculture. By 1840, however, the number of people in a household engaged in various industrial pursuits is recorded.[2] These censuses tracked occupation as a means of measure of labour force or industrial classification.[3] Through its various historical iterations, Canada maintained the practice of occupational categorization in its censuses.[4] Both nations have since expanded their occupational classification information to correlate with labour force participation, wage earnings, vital and other social statistics. A review of literature titles demonstrates that data from occupational classification indexes are used in broad fields of study and business such economics, management, immigration and human resources.
Today in both countries occupational indexes are used for varied purposes; some as counselling and therapeutic/rehabilitative tools. In the latter case, occupations are categorized often by degree of skill proximity to each other and are measured by various factors that permit the traits of individuals to be matched against them. Furthermore, the physical demands of each occupation are often reported and in some cases related labour market information such as wage and employment outlook by regions is detailed[5] In this way such indexes serve to guide job seekers towards work clusters matching their skills, interests, training backgrounds and functional capacities.
The beginnings of vocational counselling as a standardized practice in North America are attributed to Frank Parsons and the Vocational Counselling Center in Boston, MA. [6] In brief, the center served youths in need of employment just after the turn of the 20th century. Parsons accomplished this using a trait-factor model that posited the traits of individuals should match the factors of jobs for successful employment. As stated by Parsons, ”If a boy takes up a line of work to which he is adapted, he will achieve far greater success than if he drifts into an industry for which he is not fitted. An occupation out of harmony with the worker's aptitudes and capacities means inefficiency, unenthusiastic and perhaps distasteful labor,and low pay; while an occupation in harmony with the nature of the man means enthusiasm, love of work, and high economic values, — superior product, efficient service, and good pay.” [7]
Dr. Parsons’ quote begs the question: what factors? To know such factors certainly implies an understanding of occupations and their various attributes. Parsons, for his part, saw this as a moving feast rather than index of great permanence in saying, “Each vocational counselor should make a thorough and detailed classification of the vocations. As no such list of vocations can be permanent, and as any list will probably be incomplete, I shall not attempt to present one here.”[8] Nonetheless, he then lists industrial groupings as a form of organization and devotes a chapter of industries open to women, including job titles. He then proceeds to list in chapters a limited taxonomy of an occupational index advocating for an understanding of statistics, labour market demand and geographical location of work in his book “Choosing a Vocation”.
Two and three years later, in 1911 and 1912, a compendium of this research is published by the Girl’s Trade Education League and the Vocational Bureau as “Vocations for Girls” and “Vocations for Boys” respectively. In their several volumes are listed occupational titles and the various factors of the work grouping. For example, the volume entitled “The Department Store and Its Opportunities for Boys and Young Men” will list the characteristics of Machinist, Banking, Baker, Confectionary Manufacture, Architect, Landscape Architect and Grocer. The compendium “Vocations for Boston Girls” is similarly constructed with job titles including Book Binder, Nurse Maid, Straw Hat Maker and Telephone Operator.[9] Listed in these descriptions is the methodology of information collection that included in-person observation of work and expert interviewing plus subsequent review (expert rating).
In describing typical duties such as occupational outlook, educational requirements and other attributes, it makes real the methodology of systematic information collection about jobs including in-person observation to assist in vocational selection in a trait factor approach. As a result, this compendium of occupations constitutes the first occupational index used for counselling purposes in North America.
That these practices were known and shared in Canada is supported by a number of ancillary factors. In the book “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency” by Hugo Munsterberg describes the Vocational Bureau and its practices.[10] This book is attributed to have been a best-selling non-fiction publication making it very likely read and known in Canada.[11] Canada’s national newsmagazine, McLean’s, published Dr. Munsterberg’s writing as early as 1910[12]. Parson’s “Selection of a Vocation” was published by McLean’s in 1912, making his work known nation wide and for general consumption.[13] Given this degree of national exposure, it is reasonable to assert that people with specific interest in the field would also be aware of the work. However, a more direct transplant of information leading to occupational categorization would soon follow.
The need for occupational analysis in Canada began two years later. A large number of soldiers were wounded in the first world war beginning in 1914 as members of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Policy discourse framed the view that it became necessary for reasons of economic need that wounded young men return to work whenever possible.[14] Injuries from war led to the formation of the Military Hospital Commission which by 1917 was renamed the Invalided Soldiers’ Commission within the Federal Government Department of Soldiers’ Civil Re-Establishment.[15] The purpose of the Commission was to rehabilitate for work these wounded men.
In addition to other practices that distinguish this work as an early vocational rehabilitation program in North America, the methods of occupational information collection and use signal an advancement in occupational categorization. They also point to the development of an early repository of occupational information intended purposefully for vocational rehabilitation.
Referred to as industrial surveys, men were sent to obtain a variety of information on a wide array of occupations to determine if they were suitable for wounded soldiers. Supporting a therapeutic intention was the surveys’ objective to avoid exploitation of wounded soldiers.
“The services of a number of returned soldiers, who had had technical training and considerable experience before the war in industrial life, were secured, and these were sent to selected industries for purposes of investigation and report. Interviews were held with the presidents or general managers of these industries and an intensive study of the operations or occupations carried on in these industries was made. Each occupation was studied separately by the industrial surveyor with emphasis upon the following:
(a) The suitability of the occupation for a man with a certain disability.
(b) The hours of labour.
(c) The wages the man would probably receive after his course was completed.
(d) The relation between certain disabilities and the occupation.
(e) Whether the man could or could not be trained in schools, or whether he could be trained partially in schools and partially in factories.”[16]
Further in the report of “The Work of the Invalided Soldiers’ Commission” regional submissions are included. In Ontario, the purpose, method and information obtained from industrial surveys is outlined:
“The Department of Industrial Surveys, Ontario, was organized late in December and had for its object the surveying of the industries from the point of view of the wounded man and the placing of men in these industries for special training. The functions of this department may be briefly summarized as follows:
1. To make personal contact with the heads of the industries in Ontario and
establish friendly relations and confidence.
2. To survey these industries thoroughly by personal visits, making a tour of
inspection of all departments, usually with an expert guide, in some cases spending days in the very heart of the works making notes and absorbing the desired information.
3. To write a comprehensive report on each industry so surveyed, setting forth, together with the character of the concern, the general working conditions, nature of the buildings, modern or otherwise, sanitary conditions, hours of labour, attitude of employer towards employee, care taken to safeguard and make employees satisfied, rate of wages and prospects together with the general feeling of all towards the returned soldier.
4. To determine the desirability and possibilities of placing partially disabled
returned soldiers for training, the number that could be placed to advantage, the length of time required to train in the various departments or trades before becoming sufficiently proficient to earn a living wage, the prospect of their being absorbed and becoming part of the permanent staff, also the general feeling of those in authority and of the workmen regarding the training of the returned man.
5. To distribute these surveys and other information to the different vocational officers throughout the province, to assist them in selecting openings for training suitable for any particular man, taking into account his previous occupation, education, temperament and disability.
6. To keep in personal touch with the various vocational officers, both in convalescent homes, hospitals, and discharge depots, and act more or less as a bureau of information, keeping them posted and up to date as to new openings and opportunities as they occur, and assisting them to select suitable trades or openings for men of peculiar disabilities or qualifications.
7. To take these men after their course has been granted and to place them with the industry their course requires, doing this personally so that no misunderstanding can exist between man and employer, arranging for hours of attendance, tuition or instruction to be given and how, and creating a feeling in the man that he is being looked after and taken an interest in and very often arranging for the man's being encouraged by being promised permanent employment in his chosen calling on the completion of his term of training at a rate of pay higher than his vocational pay and allowances.
8. To visit the man at least once a week, pick up his attendance sheet and get a general report on his progress, conduct and health, and see that he is satisfied and taking an interest in his work.
9. If found necessary, to recommend a change of course and arrange for this, especially where unforeseen conditions arise that affect the man's health or in case of nervous trouble.”[17]
This recount identifies the retention of work information and its circulation to assist soldiers in identifying appropriate training placements based on the characteristics of the occupation when compared to the needs of the wounded soldier. Given the number of soldiers in need of assistance and the range of interests as well as functional constraints exhibited, a range of occupations were surveyed. By May 1918, 3410 soldiers had been approved for vocational training in Canada.[18]
As to occupations, 179 courses for occupations, based on surveys, had been included to address soldiers’ vocational rehabilitation. The list of courses is drawn from the Report of the Work of the Invalided Soldiers’ Commission May 1918,
“Armature winding, agriculture, accounting, arts university, automobile repairing, agriculture and farm mechanics, architecture and building construction, automobiles care and operation, applied science, arts and …veterinary assistant, watchmaking, wireless telegraphy, wheel truing and bicycle repairing, X-Ray operating.”
The effort to collect these surveys was organized as a branch within the Department of Soldiers Civil Re-Establishment. This came to be because a gentleman from the United States, G. A. Boates, showed the department industrial surveys he had completed for training of shipbuilders at a time when it became clear to the department that a variety of occupations of national need and interest to soldiers might best be taught within community based settings.[19] Mr. Boates would become the head of the Industrial Survey Branch.
Consequently, Industrial Surveyors were hired and dispersed across the nation. By 1918, 993 investigations of various industries along with their associated jobs had been completed. Copies of all industrial surveys were forwarded to a central office. Access was made to the surveys when designing a course, comparing courses, determining what equipment to purchase, etc. Labour market information was also maintained in a feedback loop mechanism to this central repository. Information about any occupation was available to vocational counsellors.[20]
Although somewhat lengthy a sample inspection report is copied here for insight into the effort of job analysis that was made. Interesting too is the focus on common impairments arising from the war and their suitability to the occupation.
“Survey of a brass manufacturing company, in Canada….
Summary:
Product - Brass fittings, valves, lead pipes, and plumbing supplies.
Pay - 40 cents to 50 cents per hour.,
Hours - 9 hour day. 49 hour week.
Disabilities - Men suffering from certain disabilities of the lungs, ear, eyes, head, abdomen, and from shell shock could be placed for training with this firm to become: Brass Polishers. Lathe Operators. Core Makers….
Division of Labor, brass foundry.
Disabilities for Re-Education - One opportunity exists for a disabled man to learn core-making.
Number employed - Eleven men.
Disabled Workers - No disabled men were employed in the Brass Foundry
at the time this Survey was made.
Pay - 50 cents per hour.
Hours - 9 hour day. 49 hour week.
Nature of the Work - The foundry is built for the purpose and high
ceilings allow any gas and smoke present to rise. The air is remarkably good
for a foundry.
The moulders take the pattern of the parts of valves and fittings to be produced and make the impressions in moulding sand ready to receive the molten brass. They work at the bench in this shop on account of the fact that nearly all the pieces moulded are small. In spite of the fact that the tools are light as well as the part to be dealt with, the Superintendent expressed the opinion that the handling of the flasks of sand, sometimes six at a time, would make it difficult for a man, other than a man with fairly robust physique to perform the work in an efficient manner. The weights handled approximate 80 pounds. Core-making is much lighter work than moulding. The Superintendent agreed that many disabled men who could not return to more active occupations could make a good living at core-making.
Core-making supplements moulding. It deals with the construction of separate shapes in sand which form holes, cavities or pockets in the castings.Such shapes are called cores. They are held firmly in position by the sand of the mould itself. The whole detail of core-making is so different from moulding that it is a distinct trade. A trade, however, that is generally considered a stepping stone to that of moulding.
The moulding sand used is damp and contains some binding material such as flour, glue, linseed oil, or resin. It is shaped in various ways. The cores under process of manufacture in this plant were being formed in brass core boxes. There were cores for 5 inch brass valves which would later be put in pickle for cleaning, smoothing and nickel plating. The Coremaker tamps the sand into place, makes proper provision for minute hole to carry off the gases formed in moulding. He places the mould on a core plate, which is a flat iron plate on which green cores are placed for baking. The cores are baked in an oven by a quick heat, and are then ready for" the moulder to put into place. Some long cores are made in two pieces to prevent breakage and the pieces are made to adhere before they are baked.
The Coremakers were using core boxes less than two-foot long, fill in the sand by hand and the top is levelled off by a flat-steel, resembling a ruler known in the trade as a "Striker." The working men were standing up, but some of the work could be done while seated.
There were no power machines in the foundry. A battery of eight crucible
furnaces was seen at one end of the department. They were sunk into the
ground, so that the covers were on a level with the floor. No noise of any air
blast could be heard. The core-makers benches are at -the other end of the
room, sixty feet away.
The work is carried on steadily. No shut down occurs during the summer
months as in many foundries. One feature may be taken into account, viz.,
that brass moulding and iron moulding are very similar, and that a man who
is familiar with the one can quickly learn the other. The difference is that
with brass more allowance must be made for expansion, and finer sand is used. Molten brass flows more readily than molten iron.
Training needed - Six months training in the brass foundry working alongside a coremaker should make a man fairly proficient, and he could then make the simpler cores, though it is doubtful if the average man could make the more intricate cores in a satisfactory manner in that time.
A feature of the training must be noted, that is that the shaping of the core
does not entail the consumption of raw material and a man may practice making core after core without any material loss, and only the man's time need be taken into consideration.
Could place - One suitable man could be taken in to learn the trade of coremaker Work most closely related - Work that includes a knowledge of the
weights of metals particularly of brass in a molten state would have a relative
bearing upon core making. Coppersmiths, tinsmiths, blacksmiths, boiler makers, machinists, etc. could likely learn this line as a vocation if their disabilities were such as to prevent them from returning to their former vocation.
Tools used - The coremakers use core boxes, core plates, sand shovel,
riddle or sieve, soft brush, strike bellows, trowel, vent wires, slickers, calipers, cutting nippers. ... Experience needed - It cannot be said that any previous experience is necessary, though a familiarity with metals would be an assistance.
Could a start be made in school? - If a course in Foundry Practice were available the workman could be assisted by such a course.
DISABILITIES.
Lung wounds and lungs diseases - At such times as the pouring of metal was in progress there might be enough vitiated air and fumes present to cause discomfort to a workman suffering through lung wounds or disease. The actual pouring occupies a small percentage of the time and unless the case were chronic, it is unlikely that the situation would prove injurious.
Head - A man might engage in core-making if he were handicapped by
occasional spells of faintness or dizziness. Such an attack could scarcely
result in any injury other than such as would be received anywhere else, in
falling.
Neck - The muscles of the neck were being used continuously by the
coremakers in the shop, but a stiffness of the neck would not entirely eliminate the possibility of a man engaging in the work.
Ear - Partial hearing or one good ear would be sufficient to carry on the
work as a coremaker. Total deafness would be a handicap, but once learned
there is nothing in the job that a deaf man could not perform in an efficient
manner.
Eye - It is not essential that the sight of the workman's eyes be up to a normal standard. There is nothing fine about cores as there is in jewellery. If
the eyesight were fair and outlines could be easily distinguished the workman
could learn to make cores.
Shell shock - the only deterrent factor in shell shock as applied to core making would be an unsteady hand. Otherwise the general circumstances
usually surrounding this trade would be beneficial to such a case.
Hernia - The cores as handled in this plant are small and a coremaker is
not called upon to lift more than 25 pounds. The workman would have to be
able to stand a large part of the time.
Abdomen - A contraction of the muscles of the abdomen occurs when
pressing down upon the sand in the core boxes. The effort is slight, but repeated continually while making cores.
Kidney - It was not thought that the contraction of the muscles of the
back was such as to cause any trouble with weakened kidneys.
Skin - The sand dealt with is in a damp condition, and no dust arises from
it while being manipulated. It would be a very unusual form of skin disease
that would be affected by the small amount of gas and odors common to the
foundry.
Rheumatism - There is dampness present but rheumatism is not a common complaint amongst the workman and it is not thought that any such trouble might be anticipated.
Leg - The workman does almost all his work while standing. There is a certain amount of moving about and a single amputation case would find the work rather strenuous.
Arms and hands - Two arms would be needed, but the loss of one or
two fingers would not prove a great handicap. No great degree of strength is required in the arms.[21]
The industrial surveys branch and its product(s) appear familiar in some respects to today’s occupational indexes. Besides title, job tasks and educational requirements, the information they contained was systematically collected, analyzed and retained as a resource for occupational selection based on functional limitations and disability (although in this case disabilities only found in wounded soldiers were considered). In short, it measured attributes and demands of the job. The descriptors also contained labour market information to guide successful outcomes in some regions of the country. The surveys were updated regularly to reflect the world of work as it was understood at that time. Taken together the Industrial Surveys may constitute the first occupational index used for rehabilitative purposes.
It is unclear that it was recognized as such however. In no recount discovered to date are terms consistent with these indexes being used to describe the output of the industrial surveys, even if their value to injured soldiers was recognized by their purveyors. It also appears that these surveys were meted out individually rather than as a whole collection for ease of reference even if provincial surveyors were expected to maintain a knowledge of pertinent ones in their area. Lastly, the industrial surveys were not used for the benefit of the population as a whole but were seen as a therapeutic tool for injured soldiers alone. [22]
Records indicate that the U.S. government was aware of rehabilitation practices for wounded soldiers in other countries and, as a result, adopted vocational rehabilitation measures used by them. The United States of America declared war against Germany on April 2, 1917 and the need to rehabilitate wounded soldiers was foreseeable.
The clearest evidence that similar methodologies between Canada and the United States were applied, both in broad service provision of vocational rehabilitation and development of an occupational index, comes from the sharing of personnel and training. For instance, Thomas Kidner, the Vocational Secretary of the Invalidated Soldiers’ Commission in Canada published in 1917 the works of the commission stating he was now on duty with the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Rehabilitation Division, Washington, D.C.[23]
In 1918 Mr. Kidner testified before the Joint Congressional Committee on Education and Labor on the topic of vocational rehabilitation of disabled soldiers and sailors.[24] His testimony largely recounted the practices of vocational rehabilitation for wounded soldiers in Canada. No mention is made of an occupational index per se in his testimony. Mr. Kidner speaks to occupational and vocational officers who counsel wounded soldiers on a choice of vocation appropriate to them and the courses they can take for such a transition. As these were vocational courses, this suggests these curricula were founded on occupational knowledge.
Notably Mr. Kidner focused on the needs of the individual, “We interviewed every man who came back to Canada, finding out what his needs were and it speedily developed that it was an individual problem in every case and study it in the light of the man’s whole nature…and of the remaining possibilities within him,” and, “The point I want to emphasize is that in our experience the determination of the occupation toward which a disabled is to be directed is in every case a personal one.”[25] Inherent to this view can be seen a trait factor approach not unlike that proposed by Parsons and the inherent idea of an individualized rehabilitative approach. A suitable occupation in the USA was a group decision involving the soldier, a vocational officer, a layperson and a person working in a field of instruction if work preference was known.
Further evidence of shared knowledge in vocational rehabilitation practices comes from Sixteenth Annual Report to Congress of the Federal Board for Vocational Education in 1920 where it is stated. “In connection with the training the group was sent to Canada for 4 of the 6 weeks in which instruction was given and a scheme of inspection conference and training was carried on in cooperation with the institute and Invalidated Soldiers’ Commission of Canada. This training program was approved by the Federal Board before it was put into effect.”[26] It is noteworthy that the term “inspection” is used as the review of a workplace as part of an occupational survey was termed an “inspection” and those who conducted them were identified as “vocational inspectors” in Canada.[27]
At the same time, in 1918 the Department of Labour Statistics would produce an occupational index which seems intended as a counselling manual. Entitled “Descriptions of Occupations”, a series of bulletins divided by what may be seen as industrial categorizations was released. Within each was a series of occupational titles and descriptions related to that industrial category. For example, the bulletin “Water Transportation” had occupational titles such as Boatswain and Storekeeper. [28]
The introduction gives hints as to methods of the index’s construction. “These descriptions of occupations are based on investigations, including private interviews and correspondence, extending over practically the entire United States. The outstanding fact developed by these investigations is that there are few standard or generally accepted occupational names or definitions. It has been necessary, therefore, for the Bureau of Labor Statistics to define certain occupational terms and classifications and to assume the acceptance of these definitions by those using the descriptions.” This Introduction continues by stating, “The users of these descriptions are urged to send to the Bureau of Labor Statistics all suggestions and criticisms as they arise, so that eventually there may be developed a national standard of occupational descriptions. The Bureau of Labor Statistics wishes to thank all those who have contributed to the compilation of these descriptions. So many individuals and representatives of various organizations have been consulted that it is impossible to make special mention of such services.” The use of early expert rater methods and observation (job analysis) is inherent in this description as is the intention of a standard categorization of occupations as a helping tool for employment.
The descriptions foreshadow future indexes in that they offer job duties, qualifications and schooling required. For example,
“COOK, TUG OR STEAM LIGHTER
Kindred Occupation: Deck hand.
Description: The cook orders and cooks the food, bakes bread, and serves the meals for the entire crew. On tugs carrying only one deck hand the cook helps in the handling of the stern lines. Where there is only one deck hand, the cook relieves the deck hand at mealtimes. Qualifications: The cook must have had some experience in preparing food and must be willing to assist in deck work. He must be able to cook satisfactory meals on a given allowance per day per man.
Schooling: Common school.”
It is notable that the description is intended as a definition of a job role and in that manner allows for comparison to other similar or disparate work clusters much as is the case with the industrial surveys in Canada. Given the relatively brief entry many such descriptions can be printed together and organized by some means of categorization. This categorization, while not unique, makes broad ranging work roles accessible in one compendium if so desired. In so doing it more closely approaches the occupational indexes we see today.
There appears to be two channels of progression in occupational categorization. Firstly, from a Parsons method to aid in counselling towards employment, are indexes/bulletins/amalgams describing occupations such as found in “Vocations for Boys” and “Descriptions of Occupations”. Secondly, are investigations of occupations to return injured soldiers to work and they serve a rehabilitative purpose in that they consider job demands and functional limitations. These industrial surveys are more focused on a broader range of attributes, particularly physical accommodation, as they seek to provide utility for the individuals wounded in action. In so doing they demonstrate that occupations can be analyzed according to particular specific characteristics and that such attributes are tied to job tasks that may be repeated in multiple employment contexts.
No other occupational indexes for counselling or rehabilitative purposes would be released in the United States or Canada until 1939 with the first issue of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) by the US Department of Labor. Developed as a make work project during the depression, the DOT was specifically created to assist in the placement of unemployed persons. The creation arose from the Occupational Analysis Program which collected employment information through job analysis techniques out of employment service field offices of the Department of Labour.[1][2] The extent to which industrial surveys and prior occupational compendiums influenced the development of the DOT is an area worthy of further research. It appears however that the DOT would amalgamate the two streams of purpose in containing both objective measures of occupations and information about them in terms of typical tasks and employment requirements.
Conclusion
The development of occupational indexes for the purposes of offering counselling or rehabilitative benefit has been both an overt and subvert sharing of learning and practical application between the United States and Canada beginning in the early 20th century. The advancement of these practices led to a methodology of creation and analysis of occupations even when, in initially doing so, the idea that an index had been developed may not have been recognised as such. The two streams of such compendiums - the counselling index emphasizing categorization and subjective description and the rehabilitative resource emphasizing measurement of attribute and demand - would amalgamate to form the modern index we use today.
The result was the development of helping tools - indexes developed independent of other occupational categorization systems, such as the census methods, indicating their purpose was distinct - to assist vocational counselling and rehabilitation efforts as necessary undertakings.That they continue to be used now on a daily basis for the same purpose as originally desired underlines their historical significance within the field of vocational rehabilitation and vocational counselling.
Peter Campbell, hons BA (psych), RRP, CVRP, CCVE, ICVE is a vocational evaluator in private practice in Belleville, Ontario, Canada
References:1. Alexandrin, G. 1966, Notes on Occupational Classification, Relations Industrielles, Volume 21, Number 4,2. Barabba, G.P., Hagan, R.L., Turbitt, J.W & Garland, M.G., 1975, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC3. Brewer, J.M. Brewer, J.M. (1942) History of Vocational Guidance New York Harper and Brothers;4. Hale, M, 1980, Human Science and Social Order: Hugo Munsterberg and the Origin of Applied Psychology, Philadelphia Temple University Press, pp 154-55.5. Jones, L.K., 1994, Frank Parsons Contribution to Career Counselling, Journal of Career Development 20, pages287–2946. Kidner, T. B.,1917, Vocational Work of the Invalided Soldiers' Commission of Canada, Rehabilitation of the Wounded ,The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 80.7. McCurdy, F.B. and Members, 1918, Report of the Work of the Invalided Soldiers’ Commission. Government Printing Bureau, Ottawa, Canada.8. Moskowitz, Rachel, 2018, A Brief History of Occupational Classification in the United States, US Department of Labour, NM9. Munsterberg, H., August 1910, Psychology in Everyday Life, McLean’s, Toronto Canada10. Munsterberg, H., 1913, Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, Houghton, Mifflin and Company ch. 5,11. National Occupation Classification – About the NOC 2016,https://noc.esdc.gc.ca/Home/AboutTheNoc/74d0e0e27d5440ce80c6b3556eb 7bf4912. O*Net Online, What is O*Net https://www.onetcenter.org/overview.html13. Parsons, F. (1909), Choosing a Vocation, London, Gay & Hancock14. Parsons, F, October 1912, Selection of a Vocation, McLean’s, Toronto, Canada15. Segsworth, W.E., 1920, Retraining Canada’s Disabled Soldiers, Department of Soldiers’ Civil Re-Establishment, Government of Canada. 16. Silver, Amanda 2020, The Dictionary of Occupational Titles: The History of Classifying Occupations and How It Affects Our Perception of Work, , The Start-Up, URL online17. United States. Bureau of Labor Statistics., United States Employment Service. (1918). Descriptions of occupations. Washington: Govt. print. off.18. United States. Federal Board for Vocational Education., 1932, (191732). [First-]Sixteenth annual report to Congress of the Federal board for vocational education: [1917-]. Washington: U.S. Govt. print. off. 19. Vocations for Boston Girls (1911) Girls Trade Education League, Boston MS.20. Vocations for Boys, (1912) Vocational Bureau of Boston incl. The Department Store and Its Opportunities for Boys and Young Men; Boston MS21. Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors: Hearings Before the Joint Committee on Education and Labour of the United States Senate and House of Representatives, 56th Congress, 2nd session April 30 to May 1, 1918, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.22. Withers, AJ., 2016, (Re)constructing and (re)habilitating the disabled body: World War One era disability politics and its enduring ramifications. Canadian Review of Social Policy/ Revue Canadienne de Politique Sociale, 75,